
Budo Beat 8: Zanshin Reigaku 残心励学
The “Budo Beat” Blog features a collection of short reflections, musings, and anecdotes on a wide range of budo topics by Professor Alex Bennett, a seasoned budo scholar and practitioner. Dive into digestible and diverse discussions on all things budo—from the philosophy and history to the practice and culture that shape the martial Way.
The following is the final instalment my two-year series of articles titled “The Philosophy of Zanshin” published in the Nippon Budokan’s monthly magazine, Gekkan Budo. This one came out in January, 2025. Using my ideas of “micro-level zanshin” and “macro-level zanshin” I examined the core of budo and its broader social significance from multiple perspectives. Central to these discussions has been the “Budo Charter”, a critical framework outlining the philosophical and ethical foundations of budo. In this closing article, I reflect on the series as a whole, emphasising how the practice of zanshin—both in and beyond the dojo—and its integration into daily life are vital for maintaining the enduring relevance of budo in modern society. There are 25 articles in total. While the entire series was written in Japanese, I thought I’d translate this final piece into English for anyone curious. I’m still wrestling with whether to translate the entire series into English…
(Caveats: Some things translate better in Japanese than English, but I’ll polish the translation when I find the time. Also, since this is No. 25 in a long series, parts of it may not make sense without the earlier context.)
Introduction
In this series, titled “The Philosophy of Zanshin”, I have explored what I consider to be the essence of budo and significant changes in the modern era using the framework of the “Budo Charter”. Some readers might be wondering how on earth this relates to “zanshin”. To clarify, let me ask you to recall the two key terms I introduced at the beginning of this series: “micro-level zanshin” and “macro-level zanshin”.
From the first to the fourth instalments, I provided an overview of what I refer to as “micro-level zanshin”. This included an exploration of the etymology and various transformations of the concept of zanshin, as well as its manifestations in practical training and competitive contexts. If we consider micro zanshin as “the readiness and mental composure to respond immediately to an opponent’s counterattack”, then macro-level zanshin can be defined as “the mindset and adaptability to address the flow of time, societal changes, and various challenges in daily life”.
Building on this distinction, I explored a wide range of themes. These included the meaning of “character development” in budo, the importance of etiquette and fundamentals, and the unique cultural aspects of budo. I also examined the significance of “ippon”, the challenges of refereeing, and the issues with a victory-at-all-costs mentality. Additionally, I discussed the sanctity of the dojo, the struggles faced by martial arts equipment craftsmen, and the responsibilities of instructors. Other topics included the needs and temperament of the younger generation, issues surrounding violence, the decline in interest in budo, the challenges of promoting it, and the pros and cons of its international spread. Through these discussions, I reflected on the social significance and future potential of budo from various perspectives.
As this series draws to a close, I would like to reflect on the core motivation behind writing “The Philosophy of Zanshin”. I also want to revisit why I believe that zanshin encapsulates the essence of budo on multiple levels and why, now more than ever, I am convinced that this concept is pivotal to preserving the continuity of budo culture and ensuring its transmission to future generations.
The “Budo Charter”
Since its establishment in 1977, the Japanese Budo Association recognised the importance of clearly defining the essence of budo.[1] Over the next six years, representatives from various disciplines conducted research and engaged in discussions to pinpoint the core elements of budo and the cultural aspects that required preservation. In 1987, marking the association’s 10th anniversary, these efforts culminated in the formal announcement of the “Budo Charter”. This charter was founded on a shared understanding that embraced the distinct qualities of budo culture and its role in personal growth, incorporating the viewpoints of each discipline. That year also just happened to mark my first visit to Japan, and my initiation into kendo.
Through various twists of fate, I feel a deep personal connection to the “Budo Charter”. With recommendations from the All-Japan Kendo Federation and the All-Japan Naginata Federation, I was appointed as a member of the “Budo Charter English Translation Revision Committee”. Through three committee meetings in 2004, we worked to craft an accurate English translation, carefully deliberating over appropriate expressions to get the point across.
When I was working on the translation, my attention was primarily on the linguistic details, and I must admit, I didn’t fully grasp the profound significance of the document at the time. However, as my understanding of budo culture deepened through training and personal growth, I came to see the “Budo Charter” as a pivotal declaration for ensuring the continuity of budo for future generations.
The “Budo Charter” lays the foundation for understanding the philosophical and ethical principles of Japanese budo, guiding martial artists of all levels in their pursuit of physical, mental, and spiritual growth. For this reason, I believe its essence aligns deeply with the concept of zanshin. And, with this belief in mind, I drew inspiration from the six articles of the charter (Objective, Keiko (training), Shiai (competition), Dojo, Teaching, and Promoting Budo) to undertake this series. Through. the lens of the charter, I explored the current state of budo, the path it should follow, and the challenges we must vigilantly address. Of course, what I touched upon in this series is merely the tip of the iceberg.
I would like to emphasise that my reflections are not merely an academic exercise; they serve as a call to action for individual martial artists and budo organisations to better safeguard the enduring cultural heritage of budo, ensuring its essence and continuity across generations. The principles outlined in the “Budo Charter”—the ultimate goals of budo study, the value of training and competition, the policies for instruction, the significance of the dojo, and the promotion of its traditions both domestically and internationally—offer a solid framework for evaluating modern budo. They encourage us to consider its historical roots, current state, and future trajectory. I wrote each article to challenge readers to reflect deeply on what budo should strive to be.
Dead Reckoning

The “Budo Charter” is often displayed in domestic dojos and regional Budokan in Japan, and I’ve even seen it exhibited in English overseas, which brings me a great deal of satisfaction. Yet, I can’t help but wonder if, in many cases, it serves as little more than decoration. How many truly take the time to ruminate on its deeper meaning?
Although its content is often superficially appreciated and respected, it frequently seems confined to the realm of “lofty ideals”. This perspective offers only a two-dimensional understanding of the “Budo Charter”. Through my writing, I have sought to interpret it in a more comprehensive, three-dimensional way—a perspective I believe has not been published before, either in Japanese or English.
Budo stands at a crossroads—a familiar position in its long history. On one hand, its international popularity has reached unprecedented levels, with tens of millions of people worldwide practicing various forms of budo. This global reach highlights the universal appeal of its values. However, as explored throughout this series, the dissemination of budo, both within Japan and abroad, also brings with it significant challenges.
If we allow modernisation—technological innovation and cultural shifts—or the pressures of commercialisation to diminish the depth of budo, we risk losing what makes it unique. The “Budo Charter” does more than outline ideals; it challenges us to strike a balance: to embrace modernisation while staying faithful to the principles that define budo. In some ways, it brings to mind the old navigation method of “dead reckoning”, relying on past positions to chart a steady course forward.
“Dead reckoning” can be described as “deductive navigation” or “estimated positioning”, and is a navigation method that calculates one’s current position based on known positions, speed, time, and direction. This technique is particularly useful in situations where electronic devices are unavailable or unreliable, and it has been widely used in maritime and aviation navigation. It relies on estimation, a compass, a speedometer, and a clock rather than external references like landmarks, celestial navigation, or GPS.
For example, if a ship knows its last confirmed position and maintains a steady course and speed, it can project its approximate current position over time. However, this method is subject to cumulative errors caused by factors such as currents, winds, and inaccuracies in measuring speed and direction. Therefore, regular position corrections are essential to maintain accuracy.
In this way, dead reckoning always requires zanshin. It demands unwavering focus and attentiveness to all elements, such as speed, direction, time, and environmental conditions. A lapse in attention leads to accumulated errors, necessitating regular adjustments and recalibrations. Just as zanshin involves maintaining preparedness and vigilance after completing a technique in budo, the success of dead reckoning depends on continuous monitoring of progress and adapting to unexpected changes. This sustained attentiveness allows one to stay on course despite external influences and uncertainties.
The “Budo Charter”, I believe, serves as a guide for correcting the course of budo as it navigates a complex and evolving landscape shaped by changing societal norms, technological advancements, and globalisation. It acts as a benchmark to ensure that its core values are upheld.
By regularly revisiting the fundamental principles of the “Budo Charter”, such as the focus on etiquette, discipline, and character development, practitioners can realign the practice and goals of budo with its foundational principles. This ongoing reflection helps budo adapt to contemporary challenges while preserving its philosophical and ethical foundation, much like the course corrections made in dead reckoning to maintain a steady path.
Macro Zanshin and the OODA Loop

To reiterate, zanshin is the psychological and physical state in which a martial artist remains attentive to the flow of events and consistently ready to respond. This principle can be analysed on two levels: micro-level zanshin, which emphasises immediate tactical awareness, and macro-level zanshin, which applies this principle to broader aspects of daily life and societal consciousness.
Micro-level zanshin refers to the heightened state of awareness maintained by budoka during matches or practice. It includes the mental and physical readiness to anticipate and respond to an opponent’s counterattacks. Even after executing a technique with full commitment, one must remain vigilant and prepared to adjust according to the opponent’s reaction. This state is characterised by sharp focus, emotional control, flexible adaptability, and an unbroken connection to the opponent’s movements. Any lapse in alertness creates openings for the opponent to exploit.
On the other hand, I suggested that macro-level zanshin extends these principles beyond the dojo into everyday life. It encourages a mindset of continuous awareness and attentiveness when navigating life’s complexities. Macro-level zanshin promotes sensitivity to shifting societal trends, evolving professional challenges, and personal struggles. This approach cultivates adaptability and thoughtful decision-making in response to such changes. By integrating the principles of awareness and preparedness into all facets of life, macro-level zanshin helps maintain a balanced and adaptable approach in harmony with the environment.
Together, micro-level and macro-level zanshin form a comprehensive philosophy of sustained preparedness and focus, applicable both within and outside the dojo. This philosophy naturally aligns with the “OODA Loop”, a dynamic decision-making and action framework devised by U.S. Air Force Colonel John Boyd.
The “OODA Loop” stands for “Observe”, “Orient”, “Decide”, and “Act”, representing a continuous cycle of observation and response to rapidly changing situations. Its adaptability and emphasis on “situational awareness” (SA), discussed in detail in part five of this series, resonate deeply with the principles of macro-level zanshin. The framework offers valuable insights into applying vigilance and preparedness beyond the dojo.
The first stage, “Observe”, forms the foundation of the OODA Loop. It involves gathering relevant information and data from the environment, including external factors (e.g., trends, threats) and internal factors (e.g., resources, capabilities, readiness). Effective observation requires filtering out noise to focus on critical signals and cues. Whether it is a pilot discerning an enemy’s movements, a business leader analysing market data, or an Olympic judoka sizing up an opponent, accurate observation is paramount, as any misinterpretation at this stage can disrupt the entire process. The importance of this stage is reminiscent of Miyamoto Musashi’s teachings on “ken” (observational) and “kan” (intuitive) perception and the need to “read the [the entire] situation”.
The next stage, “Orient”, is perhaps the most complex and critical phase. Orientation involves analyzing the observed information within a broader context, shaped by experience, cultural background, and cognitive biases. This stage updates mental models to align with reality. Boyd emphasised the importance of “destruction and creation”, which involves discarding outdated ideas and integrating new strategies to respond effectively. For instance, a fighter pilot deciding whether an enemy’s movements signal an attack or retreat parallels a business leader evaluating whether market changes pose risks or opportunities.
Following orientation, “Decide” focuses on selecting a course of action from the available options. This stage treats decision-making as a hypothesis, requiring readiness to test it through implementation. Speed is crucial here; decisive action taken while the opponent is still analysing the situation can secure a strategic advantage. However, decisions must always be informed, careful, and well-considered.
Finally, “Act” represents the execution of the decision, evaluating its effectiveness and generating new observations. Effective action must be precise and adaptable, forming the basis for the next loop. Examples include deploying a military operation, launching a product, or responding to a competitor’s move—each concluding one loop and restarting the process for the next.
The true strength of the OODA Loop lies in its iterative process, which highlights speed and adaptability. “Operating inside the opponent’s OODA Loop” refers to completing the loop faster than the opponent, disrupting their decision-making and gaining an advantage. This principle has applications beyond military strategy, extending to competitive markets as well. Numerous books explore the OODA Loop as a business framework. Additionally, its cyclical nature promotes continuous improvement, with each iteration deepening understanding and refining strategy.
Ultimately, the OODA Loop transcends a mere decision-making process; it serves as a mindset for overcoming complexity. By mastering its principles, practitioners can respond to challenges swiftly, flexibly, and proactively. Whether on the battlefield, in the boardroom, or any high-stakes environment, the OODA Loop provides a timeless tool for clarity, adaptability, and success.
For this reason, I find the OODA Loop to be a compelling framework for illustrating both micro and macro zanshin. I have adapted Boyd’s model to effectively represent macro-level zanshin within the context of budo and the “Budo Charter”. The OODA Loop captures the essence of the philosophy that underpins all the reflections presented in this series. “Feed forward” can be interpreted as “zenshin” (forward awareness), emphasising proactive preparation and anticipation. This fosters the ability to prepare ahead and respond effectively to evolving situations. Meanwhile, “feedback” reflects the principle of “shoshin” (beginner’s mind), rebuilding and recalibrating with flexibility and adaptability. Together, these elements allow continuous learning and adjustment to changing circumstances, embodying the essence of zanshin.
Budo as a Conduit to Humanity

Why have I placed such strong emphasis on macro-level zanshin throughout this series? The answer is clear. In an age defined by rapid technological advancements, artificial intelligence (AI), automation, and the relentless convenience of digital tools, budo offers a much-needed sanctuary for fostering qualities often overlooked in modern life. While technology enhances efficiency and comfort, it also distances us from the challenges that cultivate resilience, self-awareness, and meaningful human relationships. Budo, with its hands-on trials and struggles, creates a unique space where individuals can develop these traits and reconnect with the deeper aspects of being human.
As I sit in the departure lounge of Narita Airport (December 2024), unsettling news has reached me from my home country of New Zealand. In her infinite wisdom, Minister of Education Judith Collins has announced the discontinuation of government funding for research in the humanities and social sciences. She explained as follows:
“The government has been clear in its mandate to rebuild our economy. We are focused on a system that supports growth, and a science sector that drives high-tech, high-productivity, high-value businesses and jobs… I have updated the Marsden Fund Investment Plan and Terms of Reference to ensure that future funding is going to science that helps to meet this goal … The focus of the Fund will shift to core science … Real impact on our economy will come from areas such as physics, chemistry, maths, engineering and biomedical sciences.” (You can read my somewhat cynical response on FB here.)
Sadly, this trend is becoming increasingly common worldwide, including in Japan. A few years ago, MEXT even proposed the complete elimination of humanities programs at national universities—a move that is both shortsighted and remarkably narrow-minded. It disregards the essential role of the humanities and social sciences in addressing the complex challenges of today and tomorrow.
Admittedly, as a humanities professor, I am biased. Yet, I am constantly reminded of the profound role budo can play in enhancing our understanding of the human experience in an era increasingly shaped by technology. Its true value lies in its capacity to immerse individuals in environments of genuine effort and struggle—spaces where resilience is built, character is shaped, and the essence of humanity, in all its complexity, is re-experienced.
Through the disciplined repetition of kihon (basic) training, the focus demanded by kata practice, and the intensity of sparring, budoka face raw, unfiltered challenges. There is no escaping the sting of strikes or outsourcing the path to mastery to algorithms. These analogue experiences build mental toughness, cultivating the endurance, adaptability, and determination needed not only in the dojo but in life. Such physical and mental trials allow practitioners to reconnect with what it truly means to be human.
Budo cultivates what can be called “direct engagement skills” (taimenryoku)—the ability to face others directly and engage in meaningful, personal interactions (see part seven of this series). In a world where communication increasingly takes place through smartphone screens, budo demands face-to-face dialogue, often in high-stakes situations. Whether it’s confronting an opponent, receiving guidance from a teacher, or competing and collaborating with peers, practitioners of budo develop a sense of presence and emotional intelligence that technology simply cannot replicate. This capacity to connect with others, interpret intent, and respond appropriately is essential for both personal growth and collective progress in today’s society.
Budo serves as a bridge between tradition and modernity, offering a powerful antidote to the passive comforts and constraints of contemporary life by harmonizing the old with the new. However, for budo to fully realize its potential in this era, it must not remain static. The essence of budo lies not in rigid preservation but in its ability to adapt, a principle I highlighted through the “Macro Zanshin 4K Loop.” This expansive approach to zanshin emphasizes the need for practitioners, instructors, and organizations to stay attuned to societal shifts and evolving needs, ensuring that budo remains relevant and impactful.
While the essence of budo—its emphasis on discipline, etiquette, and personal growth—must remain unchanged, its teaching methods, approaches to dissemination, and ways of engaging with people must evolve. Through careful adaptation and sustained zanshin, budo can maintain its essence while evolving with the times, inspiring and fostering growth in future generations.
In this light, I coined the term “Zanshin Reigaku” (残心励学), which means “encouraging learning through zanshin”. This concept integrates the principle of zanshin in budo with intellectual growth, lifelong learning, and the pursuit of self-improvement. “Zanshin Reigaku” exemplifies the dual aspects of zanshin: sharp focus on the present and a broad perspective to adapt, learn, and grow in a constantly changing world.
My hope is that this philosophy will inspire learning beyond the dojo, fostering intellectual flexibility, openness to change, and a commitment to continuous growth. At its core, the philosophy of zanshin is about being prepared for immediate challenges while learning from and overcoming greater changes to contribute to the betterment of society as a whole.
Final Word
Writing monthly articles over the course of two years was never an easy task. Deadlines were fixed and non-negotiable, creating a constant sense of urgency. At times, this urgency was motivating, while at other times, it felt overwhelming. Some days, the words flowed effortlessly; other days, my writing stalled, as if confronted by some insurmountable wall.
I rarely wrote these articles from the comfort of my research offices at Kansai University or the International Budo University. Instead, equipped with my trusty Kindle, I often wrote while traveling—on airplanes, in bustling airport lounges, in hotel rooms and cafes across various countries, and even atop tranquil mountaintops during some of my hiking expeditions. While this might sound somewhat “romantic”, the reality was that it often tested my discipline and focus.

Typing away to meet a deadline while travelling to some mountain in need of climbing in Hokkaido.
Nonetheless, writing while traveling allowed me to remain deeply immersed in the world of budo. It enabled me to distil years of experience, observation, and insight into a cohesive form, reflecting deeply on the principles and practices that have shaped my own journey. This series has been both a means of sharing ideas with others and a personal process of growth.
Coincidentally, as I write this final instalment, I have just completed my six-year-long translation project of Yoshikawa Eiji’s Miyamoto Musashi. The timing feels profoundly meaningful, as the closing words of that novel resonate deeply with the sentiments I wish to convey in concluding this two-year series on the “Philosophy of Zanshin”.
“The waves always roar; it is the nature of the world. Tiny fish sing and dance, skilfully riding the waves. Yet, who knows the mind of the water, a hundred fathoms below? Who knows its depth?”
This passage speaks to the surface-level noise and movement that so often captures our attention. Yet, it also reminds us that true understanding lies in the unseen depths. Writing this series has been a voyage into those depths, an exploration beyond the superficial to uncover the essence of budo and the “Philosophy of Zanshin”. I hope these reflections inspire others to look beyond the waves, to seek deeper truths, and to maintain zanshin in all aspects of life, both inside and outside the dojo.
Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the staff at the Nippon Budokan, to Nagashima Takuya for bringing my PowerPoint slides to life with his magnificent illustrations, and to my sensei and fellow budoka who have offered their guidance and support over so many years.
[1] The Japan Budo Association was established in 1977 to promote and preserve the traditional values of Japanese martial arts (budo). It is comprised of nine major martial arts federations and the Nippon Budokan: All Japan Kendo Federation, All Japan Judo Federation, Japan Karate Federation, All Japan Naginata Federation, All Nippon Kyudo Federation, All Japan Sumo Federation, All Japan Jukendo Federation, Shorinji Kempo Federation, and the Aikikai Foundation.
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